There are a wide variety of situations in which it is desirable to lift, compress or otherwise reposition normal or aberrant tissues or anatomical structures (e.g., glands, organs, ligaments, tendons, muscles, tumors, cysts, fat pads, and the like) within the body of a human or animal subject. Such procedures are often carried out for the purpose of treating or palliating the effects of diseases or disorders (e.g., hyperplasic conditions, hypertrophic conditions, neoplasias, prolapses, herniations, stenoses, constrictions, compressions, transpositions, congenital malformations, and the like) and/or for cosmetic purposes (e.g., face lifts, breast lifts, brow lifts, and the like) and/or for research and development purposes (e.g., to create animal models that mimic various pathological conditions). In many of these procedures, surgical incisions are made in the body, and laborious surgical dissection is performed to access and expose the affected tissues or anatomical structures. Thereafter, in some cases, the affected tissues or anatomical structures are removed or excised. In other cases, various natural or man-made materials are used to lift, sling, reposition or compress the affected tissues.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH):
One example of a condition where it is desirable to lift, compress or otherwise remove a pathologically enlarged tissue is Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH). BPH is one of the most common medical conditions that affects men, especially elderly men. It has been reported that, in the United States, more than half of all men have histopathologic evidence of BPH by age 60 and, by age 85, approximately 9 out of 10 men suffer from the condition. Moreover, the incidence and prevalence of BPH is expected to increase as the average age of the population increases in developed countries.
The prostate gland enlarges throughout a man's life. In some men, the prostatic capsule around the prostate gland may prevent the prostate gland from enlarging further. This causes the inner region of the prostate gland to squeeze the urethra. This pressure on the urethra increases resistance to urine flow through the region of the urethra enclosed by the prostate. Thus, the urinary bladder has to exert more pressure to force urine through the increased resistance of the urethra. Chronic over-exertion causes the muscular walls of the urinary bladder to remodel and become stiffer. This combination of increased urethral resistance to urine flow and stiffness and hypertrophy of urinary bladder walls leads to a variety of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) that may severely reduce the patient's quality of life. These symptoms include weak or intermittent urine flow while urinating, straining when urinating, hesitation before urine flow starts, feeling that the bladder has not emptied completely even after urination, dribbling at the end of urination or leakage afterward, increased frequency of urination particularly at night, urgent need to urinate, and the like.
In addition to patients with BPH, LUTS may also be present in patients with prostate cancer, prostate infections, and chronic use of certain medications (e.g. ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, antihistamines such as diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine, and the like) that cause urinary retention especially in men with prostate enlargement.
Although BPH is rarely life threatening, it can lead to numerous clinical conditions including urinary retention, renal insufficiency, recurrent urinary tract infection, incontinence, hematuria, and bladder stones.
In developed countries, a large percentage of the patient population undergoes treatment for BPH symptoms. It has been estimated that by the age of 80 years, approximately 25% of the male population of the United States will have undergone some form of BPH treatment. At present, the available treatment options for BPH include watchful waiting, medications (phytotherapy and prescription medications), surgery and minimally invasive procedures.
For patients who choose the watchful waiting option, no immediate treatment is provided to the patient, but the patient undergoes regular exams to monitor progression of the disease. This is usually done on patients that have minimal symptoms that are not especially bothersome.
Medications for treating BPH symptoms include phytotherapy and prescription medications. In phytotherapy, plant products such as Saw Palmetto, African Pygeum, Serenoa Repens (sago palm) and South African star grass are administered to the patient. Prescription medications are prescribed as first line therapy in patients with symptoms that are interfering with their daily activities. Two main classes of prescription medications are alpha-1 a-adrenergic receptors blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors. Alpha-1 a-adrenergic receptors blockers block the activity of alpha-1 a-adrenergic receptors that are responsible for causing constriction of smooth muscle cells in the prostate. Thus, blocking the activity of alpha-1 a-adrenergic receptors causes prostatic smooth muscle relaxation. This, in turn, reduces urethral resistance thereby reducing the severity of the symptoms. 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors block the conversion of testosterone to di-hydro-testosterone. Di-hydro-testosterone causes growth of epithelial cells in the prostate gland. Thus, 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors cause regression of epithelial cells in the prostate gland and, hence, reduce the volume of the prostate gland, which in turn reduces the severity of the symptoms.
Surgical procedures for treating BPH symptoms include Transurethal Resection of Prostate (TURP), Transurethral Electrovaporization of Prostate (TVP), Transurethral Incision of the Prostate (TUIP), Laser Prostatectomy and Open Prostatectomy.
Transurethal Resection of Prostate (TURP) is the most commonly practiced surgical procedure implemented for the treatment of BPH. In this procedure, prostatic urethral obstruction is reduced by removing most of the prostatic urethra and a sizeable volume of the surrounding prostate gland. This is carried out under general or spinal anesthesia. In this procedure, a urologist visualizes the urethra by inserting a resectoscope, that houses an optical lens in communication with a video camera, into the urethra such that the distal region of the resectoscope is in the region of the urethra surrounded by the prostate gland. The distal region of the resectoscope consists of an electric cutting loop that can cut prostatic tissue when an electric current is applied to the device. An electric return pad is placed on the patient to close the cutting circuit. The electric cutting loop is used to scrape away tissue from the inside of the prostate gland. The tissue that is scraped away is flushed out of the urinary system using an irrigation fluid. Using a coagulation energy setting, the loop is also used to cauterize transected vessels during the operation.
Another example of a surgical procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Transurethral Electrovaporization of the Prostate (TVP). In this procedure, a part of prostatic tissue squeezing the urethra is desiccated or vaporized. This is carried out under general or spinal anesthesia. In this procedure, a resectoscope is inserted transurethrally such that the distal region of the resectoscope is in the region of the urethra surrounded by the prostate gland. The distal region of the resectoscope consists of a rollerball or a grooved roller electrode. A controlled amount of electric current is passed through the electrode. The surrounding tissue is rapidly heated up and vaporized to create a vaporized space. Thus, the region of the urethra that is blocked by the surrounding prostate gland is opened up.
Another example of a surgical procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Transurethral Incision of the Prostate (TUIP). In this procedure, the resistance to urine flow is reduced by making one or more incisions in the prostate gland in the region where the urethra meets the urinary bladder. This procedure is performed under general or spinal anesthesia. In this procedure, one or more incisions are made in the muscle of the bladder neck, which is the region where the urethra meets the urinary bladder. The incisions are in most cases deep enough to cut the surrounding prostate gland tissue including the prostatic capsule. This releases any compression on the bladder neck and causes the bladder neck to spring apart. The incisions can be made using a resectoscope, laser beam, and the like.
Another example of a surgical procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Laser Prostatectomy. Two common techniques used for Laser Prostatectomy are Visual Laser Ablation of the Prostate (VLAP) and the Holmium Laser Resection/Enucleation of the Prostate (HoLEP). In VLAP, a neodymium: Yttrium-aluminum-garnet (NdYAG) laser is used to ablate tissue by causing coagulation necrosis. The procedure is performed under visual guidance. In HoLEP, a holmium: Yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser is used for direct contact ablation of tissue. Both these techniques are used to remove tissue obstructing the urethral passage to reduce the severity of BPH symptoms.
Another example of a surgical procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Photoselective Vaporization of the Prostate (PVP). In this procedure, laser energy is used to vaporize prostatic tissue to relieve obstruction to urine flow in the urethra. The type of laser used is the Potassium-Titanyl-Phosphate (KTP) laser. The wavelength of this laser is highly absorbed by oxyhemoglobin. This laser vaporizes cellular water and, hence, is used to remove tissue that is obstructing the urethra.
Another example of a surgical procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Open Prostatectomy. In this procedure, the prostate gland is surgically removed by an open surgery. This is done under general anesthesia. The prostate gland is removed through an incision in the lower abdomen or the perineum. The procedure is used mostly in patients that have a large (greater than approximately 100 grams) prostate gland.
Minimally invasive procedures for treating BPH symptoms include Transurethral Microwave Thermotherapy (TUMT), Transurethral Needle Ablation (TUNA), Interstitial Laser Coagulation (ILC), and Prostatic Stents.
In Transurethral Microwave Thermotherapy (TUMT), microwave energy is used to generate heat that destroys hyperplastic prostate tissue. This procedure is performed under local anesthesia. In this procedure, a microwave antenna is inserted in the urethra. A rectal thermosensing unit is inserted into the rectum to measure rectal temperature. Rectal temperature measurements are used to prevent overheating of the anatomical region. The microwave antenna is then used to deliver microwaves to lateral lobes of the prostate gland. The microwaves are absorbed as they pass through prostate tissue. This generates heat which in turn destroys the prostate tissue. The destruction of prostate tissue reduces the degree of squeezing of the urethra by the prostate gland, thus, reducing the severity of BPH symptoms.
Another example of a minimally invasive procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Transurethral Needle Ablation (TUNA). In this procedure, heat-induced coagulation necrosis of prostate tissue regions causes the prostate gland to shrink. It is performed using local anesthetic and intravenous or oral sedation. In this procedure, a delivery catheter is inserted into the urethra. The delivery catheter comprises two radiofrequency needles that emerge at an angle of 90 degrees from the delivery catheter. The two radiofrequency needles are aligned at an angle of 40 degrees to each other so that they penetrate the lateral lobes of the prostate. A radiofrequency current is delivered through the radiofrequency needles to heat the tissue of the lateral lobes to 70-100 degree Celsius at a radiofrequency power of approximately 456 KHz for approximately 4 minutes per lesion. This creates coagulation defects in the lateral lobes. The coagulation defects cause shrinkage of prostatic tissue which in turn reduces the degree of squeezing of the urethra by the prostate gland thus reducing the severity of BPH symptoms.
Another example of a minimally invasive procedure for treating BPH symptoms is Interstitial Laser Coagulation (ILC). In this procedure, laser-induced necrosis of prostate tissue regions causes the prostate gland to shrink. It is performed using regional anesthesia, spinal or epidural anesthesia or local anesthesia (periprostatic block). In this procedure, a cystoscope sheath is inserted into the urethra, and the region of the urethra surrounded by the prostate gland is inspected. A laser fiber is inserted into the urethra. The laser fiber has a sharp distal tip to facilitate the penetration of the laser scope into prostatic tissue. The distal tip of the laser fiber has a distal-diffusing region that distributes laser energy 360° along the terminal 3 mm of the laser fiber. The distal tip is inserted into the middle lobe of the prostate gland, and laser energy is delivered through the distal tip for a desired time. This heats the middle lobe and causes laser-induced necrosis of the tissue around the distal tip. Thereafter, the distal tip is withdrawn from the middle lobe. The same procedure of inserting the distal tip into a lobe and delivering laser energy is repeated with the lateral lobes. This causes tissue necrosis in several regions of the prostate gland which, in turn, causes the prostate gland to shrink. Shrinkage of the prostate gland reduces the degree of squeezing of the urethra by the prostate, thus, reducing the severity of BPH symptoms.
Another example of a minimally invasive procedure for treating BPH symptoms is implanting Prostatic Stents. In this procedure, the region of urethra surrounded by the prostate is mechanically supported to reduce the constriction caused by an enlarged prostate. Prostatic stents are flexible devices that are expanded after their insertion in the urethra. They mechanically support the urethra by pushing the obstructing prostatic tissue away from the urethra. This reduces the constriction of the urethra and improves urine flow past the prostate gland thereby reducing the severity of BPH symptoms.
Although existing treatments provide some relief to the patient from symptoms of BPH, they have disadvantages. Alpha-1 a-adrenergic receptors blockers have side effects such as dizziness, postural hypotension, lightheadedness, asthenia and nasal stuffiness. Retrograde ejaculation can also occur. 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors have minimal side effects, but only have a modest effect on BPH symptoms and the flow rate of urine. In addition, anti-androgens, such as 5-alpha-reductase, require months of therapy before LUTS improvements are observed. Surgical treatments of BPH carry a risk of complications including erectile dysfunction; retrograde ejaculation; urinary incontinence; complications related to anesthesia; damage to the penis or urethra; need for a repeat surgery; and the like. Even TURP, which is the gold standard in treatment of BPH, carries a high risk of complications. Adverse events associated with this procedure are reported to include retrograde ejaculation (65% of patients), post-operative irritation (15%), erectile dysfunction (10%), need for transfusion (8%), bladder neck constriction (7%), infection (6%), significant hematuria (6%), acute urinary retention (5%), need for secondary procedure (5%), and incontinence (3%). Typical recovery from TURP involves several days of inpatient hospital treatment with an indwelling urethral catheter, followed by several weeks in which obstructive symptoms are relieved, but there is pain or discomfort during micturition.
The reduction in the symptom score after minimally invasive procedures is not as large as the reduction in symptom score after TURP. Up to 25% of patients who receive these minimally invasive procedures ultimately undergo a TURP within 2 years. The improvement in the symptom score generally does not occur immediately after the procedure. For example, it takes an average of one month for a patient to notice improvement in symptoms after TUMT and 1.5 months to notice improvement after ILC. In fact, symptoms are typically worse for these therapies that heat or cook tissue, because of the swelling and necrosis that occurs in the initial weeks following the procedures. Prostatic stents often offer more immediate relief from obstruction but are now rarely used because of high adverse effect rates. Stents have the risk of migration from the original implant site (up to 12.5% of patients), encrustation (up to 27.5%), incontinence (up to 3%), and recurrent pain and discomfort. In published studies, these adverse effects necessitated 8% to 47% of stents to be explanted. Overgrowth of tissue through the stent and complex stent geometries has made their removal quite difficult and invasive.
Thus, the most effective current methods of treating BPH carry a high risk of adverse effects. These methods and devices either require general or spinal anesthesia or have potential adverse effects that dictate that the procedures be performed in a surgical operating room, followed by a hospital stay for the patient. The methods of treating BPH that carry a lower risk of adverse effects are also associated with a lower reduction in the symptom score. While several of these procedures can be conducted with local analgesia in an office setting, the patient does not experience immediate relief and, in fact, often experiences worse symptoms for weeks after the procedure until the body begins to heal. Additionally, all device approaches require a urethral catheter placed in the bladder, and in some cases for weeks. In some cases, catheterization is indicated because the therapy actually causes obstruction during a period of time post operatively, and in other cases it is indicated because of post-operative bleeding and potentially occlusive clot formation. While drug therapies are easy to administer, the results are suboptimal, take significant time to take effect, and often entail undesired side effects.
Cosmetic or Reconstructive Tissue Lifting and Repositioning:
Many cosmetic or reconstructive surgical procedures involve lifting, compressing or repositioning of natural tissue, natural tissue or artificial grafts, or aberrant tissue. For example, surgical procedures such as face lifts, brow lifts, neck lifts, tummy tucks, and the like, have become commonplace. In many cases, these procedures are performed by creating incisions through the skin, dissecting to a plane beneath muscles and fascia, freeing the muscles, fascia and overlying skin from underlying structures (e.g., bone or other muscles), lifting or repositioning the freed muscles, fascia and overlying skin, and then attaching the repositioned tissues to underlying or nearby structures (e.g., bone, periostium, or other muscles) to hold the repositioned tissues in their new (e.g., lifted) position. In some cases, excess skin may also be removed during the procedure.
There have been attempts to develop minimally invasive devices and methods for cosmetic lifting and repositioning of tissues. For example, connector suspension lifts have been developed where one end of a standard or modified connector thread is attached to muscle and the other end is anchored to bone, periostium or another structure to lift and reposition the tissues as desired. Some of these connector suspension techniques have been performed through cannulas or needles inserted though relatively small incisions of puncture wounds.
There remains a need for the development of a suture lock or a suture anchor for use in various contemplated applications. In particular, there is a need for an anchor which can be deformed to lockingly engage suture once access to an interventional site is achieved. The disclosed embodiments address these and other needs.